Introduction to International Trade - 1356 Words

Introduction to International trade International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories or in other words is the process of import and export. international trade has been present throughout much of history its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced in technology transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. While In most countries, such trade represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization this is because without†¦show more content†¦Advantages and disadvantages of international trade The advantage of international trade is greater variety of goods available for consumption and international trade brings in different varieties of a particular product from different destinations. This gives consumers wider arrays of choices which is will not only improve their quality of life but as a whole it will help to the country grow. Better utilization and efficient allocation of resources since countries tend to produce goods in which they have a comparative advantage and its lead to when the countries produce through comparative advantage, wasteful duplication of resources is prevented and helps save the environment from harmful gases being leaked into the atmosphere and also provide countries with a better marketing power. Promotes efficiency in production as countries will try to adopt better methods of production to keep costs down in order to remain competitive. For those countries that can produce a product at the lowest possible cost, will be able to gain a larger sh are in the market. Therefore an incentive to produce efficiently arises. This will help standards of the product to increase and consumers will have a good quality product to consume. As the market for the countries’ goods widens through trade more employment couldShow MoreRelatedInternational Trade : Comparative And Competitive Advantage1512 Words   |  7 Pages International trade theories are simply theories that explain how imports and exports work between different countries. Hence the name international trade. In this paper I will be reviewing different theories of international trade, explain the difference between comparative and competitive advantages, and answering three important questions. What the underlying economic rationale for international business activity is, why trade takes place, and the gains from trade and investment. I will firstRead MoreChinas Entry into the World Trade Organization688 Words   |  3 PagesIntroduction World Trade Organization ( WTO Eng . World Trade Organization (WTO) - an international organization founded January 1, 1995 for the purpose of international trade liberalization and regulation of trade and political relations between the Member States. WTO established under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) .WTO is responsible for the introduction of new parts as well as enforces the members of the organization of all agreements signed by most countries and ratified byRead MoreEconomic Integration and Global Markets to Uk Business Organizations1735 Words   |  7 PagesTable of contents Introduction-----------------------------------------------------2 Main body---------------------------------------------------------3 The definition of International trade------------------------3 The reason of International trade----------------------------3 The importance of international trade---------------------3 Economic integration and global markets to UK business organizations-----------------------------------------4 The impact of two policies of the European Union onRead MoreThe Role of International Trade in Economic Growth of Countries699 Words   |  3 PagesINTRODUCTION International trade plays a significant role in the economic growth of countries. It gives a country an opportunity to specialize in products and services that can be produced at a low cost compared to other nations, that is a comparative advantage. However gains from international trade is uneven between countries due to several country specific factors. These factors are complex and multidimensional; and include GDP, distance between countries, culture, population, import and exportRead MoreArticle: Euro Effects1717 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Euro Effects Introduction European Monetary System (EMU) is the arrangement by following which most EU (European Union) nations have connected their currencies to put a stop to great changeability and vacillations relative to one another. It was in 1979 that this system was organized in order to soothe and stabilize the foreign exchange and respond to price increases among member nations. However, sporadic changes not only elevated the values of strong currencies but at the same time, loweredRead MoreInternational Trade Agreements And How Governmental Influences Benefited Trade1231 Words   |  5 Pagesdiscuss the benefits United States (U.S) had by engaging in international trade agreements and how governmental influences benefitted trade. To regulate international trade between nations, international trade agreements exist. These agreements involve regulating imports, exports and international trade of some specialty goods. The United States have been involved in many international trade agreements includ ing free trade agreements. Free trade Agreements (FTA) helps the United States to open up foreignRead MoreMarket Forces Shape Organisational Responses Using A Range Of Examples?1086 Words   |  5 Pagescustomers to put an organisation under pressure, which also affects the customer s sensitivity to price changes. Firms can take measures to reduce buyer power, such as implementing a loyalty program. For example, the introduction of Tesco clubs card by Tesco retailer and also the introduction of a discount card. Threat of Substitution: The existence of products outside of the territory of the common product boundaries increases the tendency of customers to switch to alternatives. For example, bottledRead MoreThe Pros and Cons of Globalization Essay1680 Words   |  7 PagesWHAT IS GLOBALIZTION? First off, we will search and explore some definitions of the term globalization. ?Globalization is the process of denationalization of markets, politics, and legal systems, i.e., the rise of the so-called global economy? (Introduction to Globalization, 2004). Another article states, ?Globalization is an inevitable phenomenon in human history that?s been bringing the world closer through the exchange of goods and products, information, knowledge and culture. But over the lastRead MoreThe Main Goals Of Free Trade Agreements1186 Words   |  5 Pages One of the main goals of free trade agreements is globalization. Globalization, or global free trade, is the creation of trading connections between countries throughout the world (Globalization). Globalization stresses free trade. Free trade is when tariffs are reduced or eliminated on exports or imports. Tariff tax percentages added to US imported goods have dropped dramatically from about 60% in the 1930s, to lower than 10% in 2005 (In ternational). With less money taxed on products, corporationsRead MoreStudy Plan for Masters Degree in International Trade642 Words   |  3 PagesStudy Plan for Masters Degree in International Trade: Abstract. The Master Program of International Trade at The department of Economics of shanghai University is one of the leading ones of its kind around. The program has been created to provide students with the best possible skills and capacity to find employment in the international sector or to pursue international trade policy research. In response to the changing environment and development of the expertise of the faculty, The Department

Understanding the Inevitable in The Catcher in the Rye Essay

Understanding the Inevitable in The Catcher in the Rye If something is inevitable, it will occur at some point in time. It is an event that will occur no matter what is done to stop it from happening. In the book The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield tries to stop himself from maturing into an adult. The book details the events that happen to show Holden that he cannot overcome maturity because maturity is inevitable. Holden Caulfield has failed out of three other prep schools before his parents enroll him at Prencey. The first chapter takes place during the last days of Holden’s first term at Prencey. He has failed four of his five classes, and because of this, he has been asked to not return for the next term. The headmaster†¦show more content†¦Holden is excited about the possibility of participating in a sexual encounter with Sunny, the prostitute. I sort of just wanted to get it over with (Salinger 95). Once she arrives he can not bring himself to complete the act. ...but do you mind very much if we dont do it? (Salinger 96). Holdens relationship with his younger sister, Phoebe, provides another example of Holden wanting to mature, but stopping himself before he commits the act. Phoebe, although much younger, chastises Holden for not wanting to mature. You dont like anything thats happening (Salinger 169). The things that Phoebe is talking about are rites of passage for maturity - a sexual experience and graduation from school. Holden is still not convinced that he cannot stay a child forever. Holden shows this in his response to Phoebes chastisement. ...I have to catch everybody if they start to go over the cliff-I mean if theyre running and they dont look where theyre going I have to come out from somewhere and catch them (Salinger 173). The ledge Holden wants the children to stay on is childhood while the pit they will eventually fall into is adulthood. He wants to keep everyone, including himself, from becoming an adult. The inevitable must occur at some point in time. Holden cannot delay maturity forever. Holden finallyShow MoreRelatedThe Innocence of Childhood in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger1262 Words   |  6 Pagesas a responsible, mature individual. The novel â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye† by J.D. Salinger follows the endeavours of Holden Caulfield, a sixteen-year-old teenage boy who faces a point in his life where he must make the transition from childhood to adulthood. In an attempt to retain his own childhood, he begins hoping to stop other young children from growing up and losing their innocence as well. As indicated by the title, â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye† is a book that explores a theme involving the preservationRead More Holden Essay1040 Words   |  5 Pages Holden Caulfield, the narrator and the main character of The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, is a young adult, who, at first seems to simply describes his four day adventure in New York City after bring expelled from his forth school. However, at the same time he narrates more; through his many experiences, which he describes in the book, we can see the themes of the work. The theme that definitely stands out is the loss of innocence. Holden portrays himself as an individual, who does notRead MoreCharacter Development Of Holden Caulfield1105 Words   |  5 Pagesthus important in the development of society. As such, society expects people to constantly change and adapt. Readers typically expect to see the development of characters throughout novels, or other pieces of literature. In the novel, â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye†, J. D. Salinger deviates from the normal progression followed by most novels by characterizing the protagonist as an individual undergoing temperamen tal changes and uncertainty throughout the novel. This novel is known to have attracted criticismRead MoreDeath Of A Salesman Analysis1351 Words   |  6 Pageshis father’s unrealistic expectations and start focusing on himself. Biff is finally able to break free of the mental burden of trying to fit Willy’s definition of success, resolving his internal conflict. In addition to Biff, Holden in The Catcher in the Rye and Seymour Glass in A Perfect Day For Bananafish, also express their own crises of meaning and the different ways in which they resolve them. Biff’s crisis of meaning, in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman, stems from the idea of success thatRead More Catcher in the Rye Essay: Holden - The Misfit Hero2101 Words   |  9 PagesThe Misfit Hero of The Catcher In The Rye      Ã‚     The Catcher In The Rye by J.D. Salinger was published in 1951. A recurring theme in J.D. Salingers stories concerns people who dont fit in with the traditional American Culture. Salingers misfit heroes, unlike the rest of society, are caught in the struggle between a superficial world and a conscious morality (1 Wildermuth). In his attempt to create a new and realistic portrayal of the times, Salinger first, effectively creates Holden CaulfieldRead MoreCatcher In The Rye Self Alienation Essay730 Words   |  3 PagesIn J.D. Salinger’s, Catcher in the Rye, Holden excommunicates himself from everyone he knows because he does not like who they present themselves to be. Holden is extremely closed minded about everyone he knows and he does not understand how to communicate with others; however these actions put Holden in a state of self-alienation. Salinger uses Holden to show how loneliness can leave people in a fragile state and if not helped then it could lead to death. In Catcher in the Rye, Holden does not knowRead More Catcher in the Rye Essay: Holden and the Complexity of Adult Life1172 Words   |  5 Pages Holden and the Complexity of Adult Life What was wrong with Holden, the main character in The Catcher in the Rye, by J.D.Salinger, was his moral revulsion against anything that was ugly, evil, cruel, or what he called quot;phoneyquot; and his acute responsiveness to beauty and innocence, especially the innocence of the very young, in whom he saw reflected his own lost childhood.   There is something wrong or lacking in the novels of despair and frustration of many writers. The sour noteRead More Catcher in the Rye Essay: Holden’s Metamorphosis1954 Words   |  8 PagesHoldens Metamorphosis in The Catcher in the Rye      Ã‚  Ã‚   J. D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye is the chronicle of a young mans metamorphosis from immaturity to unsure manhood. Holden Caulfield, the protagonist, is a sixteen-year old boy who leaves the prep school he has been expelled from to escape the frightening reality of dealing with his parents. However, during his visit to New York City he is faced with the harsh reality that he cannot continue to hold onto his childhood. Holden isRead MoreEtymology and Symbolism of Characters Names in Catcher in the Rye1967 Words   |  8 PagesNames in Catcher in the Rye      Ã‚  Ã‚   Catcher in the Ryes pallid cover, adorned only with seven multicolored bands in its upper-left corner, is not what one would call eye-catching. Its reverse side lacks criticisms or reviews of any sort; in fact, it is bare of anything except a copyright date. Human beings are advised not to judge books by their covers, rather that they should look further than the obvious and try to apprehend the implied meaning. The world has peered past Catcher in theRead More The Catcher Essay2456 Words   |  10 Pagesadolescent struggling with growing up in the novel The Catcher in the Rye, is not aware of these mediums. To him the two worlds seem to be as different as heaven and hell with no purgatory in between. Holden has no positive adult role models, his only concern is preserving innocence and the only people he truly cares about and respects are children. Holden Caulfield fears the transition from child to adult in J. D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye be cause childhood is so inviting and adulthood is

The Middle Ages Essay Thesis Example For Students

The Middle Ages Essay Thesis Throughout time, history has taken some strange turns. A single ruler establishing some new form of government can transform entire civilizations, or a single event can lead to the creation of a great new people. Whatever the case, history can repeat itself in time. One possible exemption of this could be Britains time period of the Middle Ages. Bearing a distinct and unique culture relative to the time period, some of the values and the customs held during this time have yet to be repeated in history. It is perhaps the most unique period of all time for the British Isles. Brief History Before the period of the middle ages, the British Isles mostly lay dormant in local disputes and settlements of small tribes. Up until the late 900s, the Anglos and the Saxons laid their claim to the land of Britain. However, this all soon changed. An ambitions individual with hero-like characteristics set foot and conquered the Anglo-Saxons and started Britain on its journey to modernism. Thus, the tide was set in motion for a new government and a civilized race. A monarchy was established, and the Middle ages began in roughly 975 AD (Vinogradoff, p 18). Feudal Life In the Medieval Period, life was either very great or very bad, according to your class. Only 2 classes existed during this time: the nobles, such as kings and knights who lived inside the castle, or the peasants, such as working-class people who lived in often unspeakable conditions. The peasants treated the nobles with the utmost respect, for if they didnt, then the nobles could have them beheaded. (Sanders, p 34). The nobles were almost always the ones who owned land, and the peasants worked on this land in exchange for a small portion of it, in a sense, rented out in exchange for the labor. Peasants often worked 16-hour days as long as they could see into the nighttime and got very bad nourishment. The noble was not interested in the health of the peasants working on his land, as there was a significant supply of others who were very willing to take his or her place. Women had a very difficult position in society during the Middle Ages. The feudal age was known for its superstitions, and women were often convicted of witchcraft and burned at the stake. Some of the more lucky women held professions of there own, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, and apothecaries. Most, however, stayed home and defended the house against intruders, both animal and human. Most actually died before the age of 25 due to malnutrition. (Sanders, p 36). Homes In the Middle Ages, housing was inadequate, sometimes even nonexistent for the lower class. Peasants lived in a world of filth. It is a miracle that they had pulled through to work another day on the nobles land. (Vinogradoff, p 25). Peasants who were lucky to have nobles that had buildings on their land often slept with the livestock, and the floor was littered with filth and rubbish. Nobles did little for improving the peasants living conditions, and they often did cruel and inhumane things to them if they refused to work one day due to illness. (Vinogradoff, p 40). The noble way of lifestyle is not as rich and extravagant as newer royalty families lived. However, they did have many things that the peasant class did not. The floors were often much cleaner than the livestock-filled rooms in which the peasants lived, and they were tiled too, producing a primitive decorating style for each ruler. Tapestries made from great fabric types were hung throughout the stone walls of the castles in which the upper class lived. .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .postImageUrl , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:hover , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:visited , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:active { border:0!important; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:active , .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u58321623b3a510f517247dab85a426ff:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Elements of fiction EssayThe kitchen was often the center room, with the fireplace serving for its uses as a cooking place and a heating place. Bedrooms started appearing in nobles castles around 1050AD, which significantly increased the lifespan of an adult noble due to the fact that they received more rest than they had before and the bones in their spine were correctly aligned and would not break as easily. (Lemonick, Dorfman, para. 4). Religion A great increase in the followers of different religious beliefs had been born in the Middle Ages. Kings and others often said that if they were king, then they would rid the town of evil and drive the entire kingdom to happiness with God, which was false propaganda. As for the religious people themselves, they existed in very large numbers. Monasteries in the Middle Ages were based on the rules set down by St. Benedict in the sixth century. The monks became known as Benedictines and took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to their leaders. They were required to perform manual labor and were forbidden to own property, leave the monastery, or become entangled in the concerns of society. Daily tasks were often carried out in silence. Monks and their female counterparts, nuns, who lived in convents, provided for the less-fortunate members of the community. Monasteries and nunneries were safe havens for pilgrims and other travelers. (Vinogradoff, p 71). Monks visited the chapel at least 8 times a day, and fasted when necessary. They often told the people that what they had originally believed to be true was false because a new ruler had taken the throne. Kings often instructed monks to change the teachings of the church to coincide with their method of rule. Monks gave in; they had everything to lose because the king could banish them from the community. Arts and Entertainment Perhaps the things that we remember most about any time period are its significant forms of entertainment and art. The Middle Ages are definitely remembered for its unique art and entertainment forms, some of which are still in use today. Towards the end of the middle ages, people sought the need to be constantly busy. When they were not busy, they had to find something to occupy their time or they would go insane. Thus, modern entertainment had been defined. Juggling became a popular form of entertainment, as it was unpredictable and seemingly deadly objects could produce awe and inspiration to the audience. Drama also played a big role during this time period, and plays were acted out only by males and only for the noble class. (McCarthy, para. 3). Perhaps the greatest and most unique time period of all time for the British Isles was the Middle Ages. The feudal system and the role of the monarchy led this seemingly boring piece of time on the path towards greatness in meaning and value. Social skills developed during this time to force humans to cooperate and work together to produce a lifestyle that was beneficial to everyone and not just a leader. Lessons have been learned from this time period, such that it is not perfect. Disputes inside a community cannot be solved easily because they often affect the whole community and there will only be one side. Perhaps there are more lessons to be learned from this time. One can only hope that the future of modern warfare could be secretly embedded in the time of the middle ages. History has a tendency to repeat itself; maybe the time has come for the middle ages.

Kant and Shakespeare

Table of Contents Introduction Bolingbroke And Mowbray’s Banishment Unjust Acquirement Of Land Other Offences By King Richard II Misuse Of Power And Freedom By King Henry IV Conclusion Works Cited Introduction According to Immanuel Kant, man is a type of animal requiring a master in a bid to stay in peace and harmony with others. Kant also asserts that it is customary for man to abuse his freedom by infringing on the rights of others. Because of this, Kant explains that man must always have a master to watch and guide his actions.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant and Shakespeare specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, Kant also acknowledges that the most difficult problem to mankind is to find the highest master who is just by himself (Kant 1). This is because such a high position with no supervision is bound to lead to the abuse of freedom by the master. Kant presents this argument in his  "Sixth Thesis.† Shakespeare fully agrees with the sentiments put forward by Kant. This essay will indicate how Shakespeare stands in agreement with Kant by citing examples from Shakespeare’s The Tragedy of King Richard the Second. Shakespeare concurs with Kant in each and every leadership issue argued upon. While Shakespeare presents the case of a kingdom which is under the rule of egocentric leaders, Kant overtly states the minimal probability of ever finding an overall leader who is just and one who performs his duties in a desirable manner without necessarily being supervised. Shakespeare’s view of human nature and political reality goes hand in hand with Kant’s sentiments. First, this is shown through Shakespeare’s presentation of King Richard who is driven by his own ulterior motives instead of putting the interests of his subjects at heart. King Richard goes beyond the norms to fulfill his own selfish desires. Bolingbroke And Mowbray’s Banishment The first selfish action of King Richard is observed when he banishes Henry Bolingbroke and Thomas Mowbray from England. Even though he justifies his action in the name of administering judgment to the two Dukes, it is obvious that the king does this to cover up his political interests. King Richard II is afraid of being overthrown by the Bolingbroke and Mowbray. Banishing them from his kingdom therefore becomes a good method of getting rid of them. The action by the king therefore upholds the rule that man is guided by his selfish impulses and is bound to fall into temptations that lead to his abuse of power. According to Immanuel Kant, it is difficult to find an overall leader who does not abuse his freedom to get at his own ambitions. Shakespeare shows his approval of the above statement by presenting this case. It is therefore important for man to be supervised in order to limit his quest to abuse his freedom. Unjust Acquirement Of Land Shakespeare shows another case of abuse of freedom by King Richard II when he illegally acquires the land and property of John of Gaunt after his death (Shakespeare 143). The king takes advantage of the fact that no one would question him for such an injustice because he is the senior most in authority.Advertising Looking for essay on philosophy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He therefore exploits the freedom and power bestowed unto him by the people for his own good. This is the same case that Immanuel Kant discusses in his thesis. Therefore, Shakespeare consents with Kant as far as the human nature and political reality are concerned. They both uphold the rule that a law should be put in place to limit the freedom of powers conferred to man as he is bound to misuse them in order to satisfy his political quest. Other Offences By King Richard II Apart from the above cases highlighting the abuse of power and freedom by King Richard, the king also commits a series of offences against his own people. First and foremost, he is guilty of using England’s money on unnecessary expenditures such as funding the war against Ireland. Such funds should have been geared towards the development of the kingdom. The king also taxes commoners who are not in a position to pay tax. This is also a case of abuse of power and freedom. Lastly, King Richard II imposes huge fines on the nobles whose ancestors had committed crimes against the kingdom. This is a grave injustice because the nobles are made to pay for the crimes that they did not commit. These cases of abuse of power by King Richard II also indicate that Shakespeare agrees with Kant’s view of human nature and political reality. Misuse Of Power And Freedom By King Henry IV King Henry IV also misuses his power and freedom after he successfully overthrows King Richard II. His first case of abuse of power is when he kills all the people who had been loyal to King Richard II. These peop le include Bushy, Green and the Earl of Wiltshire. It is thought that after seeing all the injustices committed by King Richard II, King Henry IV would replace him as a virtuous leader. However, this is not the case. King Henry merely carries on with the same abuse of power and freedom perpetrated by his predecessor. The similarity between King Henry IV’s leadership and King Richard II’s leadership also points out to the fact that it is difficult to find a leader who will not abuse his freedom and authority in absence of any supervision. Thus, Shakespeare fully agrees with Kant on this issue. Conclusion It can be inferred from the above discussion that Shakespeare concurs with Immanuel Kant’s view of human nature and political reality. They both agree that finding a leader who is able to perform his or her duties in a proper way and without the abuse of authority is impossible. The cases of abuse of power by King Richard II and King Henry IV lend credence to the point that Shakespeare’s views on this matter are similar to Kant’s views. Works Cited Kant, Immanuel. Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View. Trans. Lewis White Beck. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1963. Print.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kant and Shakespeare specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Shakespeare, William. Richard II, ed. by Andrew Gurr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Print. This essay on Kant and Shakespeare was written and submitted by user Aubrianna Mccarthy to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Organizing function of management

Organizing function of management Introduction The success of an organization is dependent on the quality, timeliness, and responsiveness of decisions made by its leaders. When managers make effective decisions that respond to the prevailing challenges, their organization enjoy high competitiveness to their competitors.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Organizing function of management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Sanchez Mahoney, 1996, managerial roles can be classified into four main categories as planning, organizing, leading, and controlling/monitoring; efficient managers are able to effectively combine the four dimensions of management for the benefit of their organization. Organizing function of management involves putting factors of production into optimal use to attain competitiveness (Sanchez Mahoney, 1996). This paper discusses the organizing function of management. Organizing function of management According to R obey Sayles, 1994, firms have human, information, physical, and financial resources; it is through the resources that they are expected to take advantage of market opportunities and mitigate any risk associated with the market. To manage and take advantage of prevailing business opportunities as well as mitigate against business risks, resources need to be managed effectively. Management have the role of enacting policies and strategies that optimally utilize their resources to add value to their customers; they have the task of optimally managing resources and ensuring that maximum gain has been derived from them. Organizing function of management ensures that activities are optimally managed; processes and allocation of factors of production are managed to produce expected results. Organizations should ensure activities are well thought and coordinated for positive results and mitigate any business threats (Robey Sayles, 1994). Van Fleet Bedeian, 1977, suggest that leaders with in an organization have the role of establishing the right channels through which their business processes should follow for the benefit of their firms. Effectively managed organizations have their resources optimally utilized and well planned to attain high results. When planning management should be in the forefront making strategies that should be followed to attain the desired result; contemporary business environment has numerous challenges that needs to be critically approached. To critically handle issues, management have the role of organizing their organisations strengths for the good of stakeholders.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Organizing is an act that results to well coordinate activities; the activities are operated in such a way that they will attain certain desired results. In the input-out analysis, managers have the role of ensuring th e inputs they have put in a process has given the desired output; in the event that some deficit have been noted, it should be the start point of remedy (Van Bedeian, 1977). Organization goals, missions, and visions can only be attained if the management organizes processes effectively; this includes undertaking input-output analysis and undertaking numerous internal and external environment analysis using management policies like S.W.O.T. (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis, P.E.S.T.L.E. (Political, social, Ecological, Technological, legal, and environmental) analysis, and using porters five forces. Organizing takes the form of continuous process where the management engages in day-to-day activities and looks into the right method or process to improve the performance of the processes. When processes are undertaken effectively and expected results have been attained; management should not relax and think they have attained the optimal process; they should aim at developing other better methods of attaining their goals and objectives. Business competitiveness is attained when a company is able to enact policies that organize their processes and resources to attain low production cost, improved value, and increase human resources motivation. When a company is able to produce resources at low costs, it can sell them at relatively low costs than its competitors thus making it more competitive. On the other hand when value within an organization and its processes is improved, customers are satisfied with the products they get from the system. When customers are satisfied with the output of a company, they develop customer loyalty to the company’s products which is a competitive tool. Although the three articles by Sanchez Mahoney, Van Fleet Bedeian, Robey Sayles, have emphasized the need for management to make strategic organizing decisions, all the three articles have ignored the role that staffs/human resources (subordinates) play in the organizing functions. To effectively manage resources, organizations need the right systems, and the right employees; the right employees are the ones who can assist management come up with decisions that are responsive to the organization needs. If management make quality decisions and they lack a framework through which the decision will be implemented, then the results of the quality decisions will not be good (Weygandt, Kimmel Kieso, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Organizing function of management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion Managerial decisions determine the degree at which corporate goals and objective will be attained; one characteristic of effective managers is effective organization. Managers are expected to they combine human, psychical, and financial resources optimally to attain desired corporate results. When undertaking the organizing role, managers should be guided by industrial treads and undertake input-output analysis to make the right decisions. References Robey,D., Sayles, C.A.(1994). Designing organizations. Irwin: Burr Ridge. Sanchez,R., Mahoney,J.(1996). Modularity, flexibility and knowledge management in product and organization design. Strategic Management Journal, 17(1), 63-76. Van Fleet, D., Bedeian, A. (1977). A history of the span of management. Academy of management Review, 2(1), 356-375. Weygandt, J., Kimmel, P., Kieso, D. (2009). Managerial Accounting: Tools for Business Decision Making. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

An Overview of Chinas Traffic Troubles

An Overview of China's Traffic Troubles China hasn’t always had a problem with traffic, but over the past couple of decades, as China rapidly urbanizes, the country’s urban denizens have had to adapt their lives to a new phenomenon: gridlock. How Bad Is China’s Traffic Problem? It’s really bad. You may have heard about the China National Highway 10 traffic jam on the news back in 2010; it was 100 kilometers long and lasted ten days, involving thousands of cars. But outside of the mega-jams, most cities are plagued with daily traffic that rivals the worst gridlock in Western cities. And thats despite a plethora of affordable public transportation options and anti-traffic legislation in many cities that mandates (for example) that cars with even and odd-numbered license plates must drive on alternating days, so only half of the city’s cars can legally take to the road at any given time. Of course, China’s urban traffic jams are also a major factor in its pollution problems. Why Is Traffic in China so Bad? There are a number of reasons for China’s traffic congestion woes: Like most older cities around the world, many of Chinas cities were not designed for cars. They were also not designed to support the massive populations they now boast (Beijing, for example, has more than 20 million people). As a result, in many cities, the roads are simply not big enough.Cars are considered a status symbol. In China, buying a car often isn’t as much about convenience as it is about showing that you can buy a car because you’re enjoying a successful career. Lots of white-collar workers in Chinese cities who might otherwise be satisfied with public transportation buy cars in the name of keeping up with (and impressing) the Joneses, and once they’ve got the cars, they feel obliged to use them.China’s roads are full of new drivers. Even a decade ago, cars were far less common than they are now, and if you go back in time twenty years. China didn’t break the two million vehicle mark until around the year 2000, but a decade later it had more than five million. That means that at any time, a significant percentage of the people driving on China’s roads only have a few years of experience. Sometimes, that leads to questionable driving decisions, and that can cause gridlock when those decisions lead to blocked roads for one reason or another. China’s driver education is not great. Driver education schools often only teach driving on closed courses, so new graduates are literally taking to the roads for the first time when they get behind the wheel. And because of corruption in the system, some new drivers haven’t taken any classes at all. As a result, China has a lot of accidents: its traffic fatality rate per 100,000 cars is 36, which is more than double the United States, and several times more than European countries like the UK, France, Germany, and Spain (which all have rates under 10).There are just too many people. Even with great driver education, wider roads, and fewer people buying cars, traffic jams would still be likely in a city like Beijing, which is host to more than twenty million people. What Does the Chinese Government Do About Traffic? The government has worked hard to create public transportation infrastructure that takes pressure off cities roads. Nearly every major city in China is building or expanding a subway system, and the prices of these systems are often subsidized to make them extremely enticing. Beijing’s subway, for example, costs as little as 3 RMB ($0.45 as of March 2019). Chinese cities also generally have extensive bus networks, and there are buses going virtually everywhere you could imagine. The government has also worked to improve long-distance travel, building new airports and rolling out a massive network of high-speed trains designed to get people where they’re going faster and keep them off the highways. Finally, city governments have also taken restrictive measures to limit the number of cars on the road, like Beijing’s even-odd rule, which stipulates that only cars with even- or odd-numbered license plates can be on the road on any given day (it alternates). What Do Regular People Do About Traffic? They avoid it as best they can. People who want to get where they’re going quickly and reliably generally take public transportation if they’re traveling in a city around rush hour. Biking is also a common way of avoiding the gridlock if you’re headed somewhere nearby. People also tend to be accommodating when it comes to the realities of rush-hour traffic in China; taxis, for example, often pick up more than one passenger at a time during busy hours to ensure they’re not spending hours sitting in traffic with a single fare. And Chinese subways get jam-packed with passengers during rush hour. It’s uncomfortable, but people have put it with it. Spending 30 minutes getting home in an uncomfortable subway car beats spending 3 hours in a slightly-more-comfortable regular car, at least for most people.

Homelessness Issue in the U.S Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Homelessness Issue in the U.S - Assignment Example What motivates me to support this cause of improving the lives of the individuals that are homeless is giving a smile to the people that were once hopeless in life. It is evident that homelessness has negative impacts on the society. One is that it may lead to increase in insecurity in an area. This is because the people who are homeless may indulge themselves in crime as they view themselves as unwanted in a society. The homeless also may involve themselves in the abuse of drugs and sell them to other locals. Statistics have shown that where people abuse drugs there is less production of the individuals which is not good for the economy. This means there will be fewer developments as few businesses will come up each year. What also motivates me to be involved in helping the homeless is because the shelter is a basic need to a human being. It is evident that the homeless people often are affected psychologically as they have no place they can call home. It limits their potential to standout and the courage to have families which form the bases to a society. Also, homeless people portray a bad image in a city when the tourists visit. This may make them feel insecure when they visit a city with too many homeless people. I also feel sorry for many homeless innocent individuals who are at times killed as they may be suspected to be thugs. This is inhuman as it has created fear among the homeless people. One of the goals I would want to achieve is to reduce the number of homeless people in America to at least 10 percent of the current statistics. Statistics have shown that about 600,000 Americans are homeless on a given night. A quarter of this people are children and a third of them live in unsheltered places like parks and abandoned buildings. The chronically homeless people are over 100,000 and three-quarters of them go unsheltered.

Concept of Virillio and Klein on globalization Assignment

Concept of Virillio and Klein on globalization - Assignment Example Armitage (2011) reports that an analysis of the professor's work reveals expressions that tend to link the globalization concept to internationalism, a term with a close association to communism and a distance a way from the unifying capitalistic market concept preached by preachers of pro westernized philosophies. Virillio rejects the globalization concept as perpetuator of a success of over free trade over totalitarian Marxism. According to Armitage (2011), his rejection of this view is in reaction to his claim that the definition lacks the aptitude to address the present loss of time gaps, the telescoping inherent in industrial and post industrial actions. Furthermore, the extensive concept of globalization is leading to the upper echelons of human modernity which is cultivated by technology and media coercion. In Armitage (2011), it is clear that Virillio believes that past these levels human beings can only encounter the backward tightening to a spectacle characterized by an inf inite density and dilapidated to personified humans permitting only existence through a phantom space. Armitage (2011) reports that Virillio arguments as supported by the recent fiscal catastrophes that brought countless nations to the brink of bankruptcy while putting countable multinationals out of business. Virillio suggest that the comprehension of the present fiscal predicaments should take a school of thought that hat views it as a hypermodern catastrophe. A misfortune characterized by hypermodern speed flanking the entire global civilization which is a bout to rupture, (Armitage, 2011).Evidently, this proposition is inline with the well comprehended economic perception that any form of advancement as a corresponding face of a catastrophe. This has the implication that progress has an equivalent face which is an upheaval and is analogous to the double faces of a coin. Armitage (2011) cites such pundits like Walter Benjamin who furthered the theoretical conceptualization of cat astrophic attributes of globalization to have influenced Virilio's perception of globalization. Armitage (2011) cites Virilio's assertion that the westernization forged by Benjamin Franklin which over the decades supported rampart capitalistic globalization has finally reached its conclusive phase. Consequently, the present persistent fiscal negativity evident globally impeccably confirms these propositions. According to Klein (2008), globalization which has in the past years prompted the free global trade has over years profited multinationals at the expense of the disadvantage populace around the globe. From both books, Klein (2008) and Klein (2000), it is evident that corporations have over the years advanced sizably to levels that they presently supersede state organizations. Klein (2000) suggests that presently, corporate commands such elevated echelon of influence that they dictate the direction taken by political regimes across the globe. Klein (2000) argues that while they h ave in time indirectly captured governance, they are not obligated to nations' citizens but to their self centered shareholders. Klein (2000) claims that the events have adversely affected the tri pillars of civic space resulting in highly constricted social liberties and increasingly restricted employment prospects. According to Klein (2000), the maiden pillar that the corporate through state agencies have taken away from the common populace is the constricted liberty. Klein

Utility Programs and Macros Essay Example for Free

Utility Programs and Macros Essay Definition: A utility program is a program that performs a common task, such as copying and listing files on a list. Utility programs are generally provided alongside the operating system, but are sometimes bought separately. Many utility commands change with the operating system. Eg. In windows, the copy command is Ctrl + C, but in Mac OSx this changes to Command +C. The major tasks carried out by utility programs are: 1) Disk Formatting (Preparing either laser or hard discs for use) 2) Listing files in directories or folders. 3) Copying files, either from application to application, or within the same application. (Web browsers, word processors) 4) Copying discs 5) Renaming files 6) Backing up files, and also creating OS backups. (Time machine (Mac OSx), Windows Backup) 7) Running a file search in large files or directories Some other major tasks which operating systems often, but not always provide are: 1) File and Disc repair [Check disk, Defragmenter, Disk utility (Mac OSx)] 2) Anti-Virus tools, or malware checkers. (Windows Defender, Mac Cleaner) 3) Web Browser, to surf the internet. This could be standard, purchased, or freeware. (Safari, Internet Explorer) 4) File Compression, to compress files, and make the file size smaller. (Windows File Compression, Mac file Compression) Note: Often, these tools are not given by the Operating System, or are not advanced enough to be completely reliable. In this event, one may need to purchase the software. Eg. Norton Antivirus, Mcafee Antivirus, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Rockmelt, Winzip, 7-Zip, etc. MACROS: Definition: Macros allow you to automatically record a series of keystrokes, so that the key combination can record those keystrokes when required to do so. They are incredibly useful if you want to automate tasks which take too long to do, time and again, by hand. MACROS are available in most word processing applications, and are easy to use. They can save various things, such as fonts, font sizes, addresses, and even formats. One could create a MACRO that allows one to insert a document header, and footer, in a particular font, by just using two keystrokes. Creating a MACRO in MS Word is incredibly simple. This is how it is done: 1) Click on record MACRO at the bottom of the screen. 2) Give the MACRO a name. 3) Everything you do between turning the recorder on, and off, is recorded. 4) For example, you can insert a header and footer, type out an address, change the font to a particular size, etc. 5) In the status bar, click on stop recording. 6) In newer versions of Word, one must turn on the MACRO recorder in the developer tab, and then do what one wants.

ATA to Ultra ATA :: essays research papers

ATA to Ultra ATA/66 Advanced ATA Storage Interface Introduction Interface History Understanding the Need for a Faster Disc Interface Technology Overview Performance Increase Cost Stabilization Backward Compatibility System Requirements Data Integrity and Reliability Conclusions More Information Introduction The PC industry is constantly searching for advanced technology. This equates to more disc space, faster performance, more memory, better displays – virtually every component is under relentless pressure to improve. Continual improvement for the disc drive industry means lower costs, improved reliability, higher capacity, and better performance. As PC performance increases, the performance of the hard drive, which is the central input/output (I/O) device of the PC, becomes increasingly important. Improvement in disc drive performance is a complex area and is measured using several components: seek time, rotational latency, internal transfer rate, cache, and interface speed. Interface History The hard drive interface is the path through which data travels between the PC and the hard drive. The original ISA-dependent ATA (IDE) interface was limited to about 4 Mbytes/sec in the beginning, but reached as high as 8 Mbytes/sec. Interface protocols, such as programmed input/output (PIO) and direct memory access (DMA) modes, were designed to take advantage of the new local bus architectures that replaced ISA. ATA interface modes have progressed from PIO to DMA and now Ultra DMA, giving data transfer rates from 8.3, 11.1, and 13.3 Mbytes/sec up to 16.6, 33.3, and now 66.6 Mbytes/sec. Specification ATA ATA 2 ATA 3 ATA/ATAPI 4 ATA/ATAPI 5 Max Transfer Modes PIO 1 PIO 4 DMA 2 PIO 4 DMA 2 PIO 4 DMA 2 UDMA 2 PIO 4 DMA 2 UDMA 4 Max Transfer Rate 4 Mbytes/sec 16 Mbytes/sec 16 Mbytes/sec 33 Mbytes/sec 66 Mbyte/sec Max Connections 2 2 2 2 per cable 2 per cable Cable Required 40-pin 40-pin 40-pin 40-pin 40-pin, 80-conductor Additional Features - Base - Speed - Synchronous Transfers - S.M.A.R.T. - Secure Mode - Queuing - Overlap - ATAPI - Speed - Data Reliability Year Introduced 1981 1994 1996 1997 1999 The trends in the above chart show that several components have improved with the evolution of the ATA interface. Speed and functionality have made major strides over the years. Performance remains the most commonly considered attribute with interface developments, and Ultra ATA/66 makes burst data transfer rates of up to 66.6 Mbytes/sec possible. Understanding the Need for a Faster Disc Interface Ultra ATA/66 provides a low-cost, high-reliability, backwards-compatible solution to data transfer bottlenecks that slow overall system performance. As the data storage density (areal density) of disc drives and rotational speeds have increased, bottlenecks also increased, thus requiring the ATA interface to improve performance to attain compatible data transfer speeds.

Behavioral Management

Today most of the organizations are struggling to provide the employees a vivid and transparent way to achieve individual success, just because they avoid prospects to evaluate their behaviors. This situation raise different questions of what procedures to follow and what necessary measures have to be taken to be prominent and what parameters must be set to carry on with routine jobs in a smooth and efficient manner.For example, mutual discussions with the employees to find out their prospective and to know how they conceive given directions play key role to move ahead in any task professionally.In numerous organizations, employees face difficulty to make friendly relation with their superiors or managers. They could not explain their intentions, although most of them want to be an outstanding performer but either their job task does not match their capability or some times their performances can not be recognized by their bosses. Even though in some cases, if they would succeed to s how their performances and efficiency before their superiors, the management then, behaves like an ordinary manner, which causes depression among the workers eventually make them de-motivated.â€Å"It's easier to sell something to a group which has already invested in the product. Codes of conduct are an important first step to managing ethics in your workplace. † (Priest, 1999) Many employees even don’t have any knowledge about what management expects from them unless there are being told by their bosses to make them active and self-accountable. Most employees come to know about their performance appraisal with negative/worse seniors, when they are given a walking paper. Managers would move into fewer dilemmas, how to manage behaviors of their staff. Employee PerformanceConventional performance management approaches are followed by several organizations based on their nature of businesses and sizes. If employee X and employee Y do their jobs and both have different na ture and different ways in which they conceive their assignments. But management as a whole carries out similar rules and regulations for every employees and expects that every employee will behave monotonously. A little consideration of the issue enables us to get the conclusion that the execution is not preservative, and a amount of the factors that impress an individual’s behavior are not handled directly by case-by-case approach.We are commencing to comprehend that performance is appeared due to the result of work system, and all its components, not just every individual employee. Employees impress each other's capabilities to do their single job projects. One bad fish can spoil the environment of the whole pond; similarly a bad employee can actually affect on many others, whereas a nice employee may not only act his/her own work, but also make a helpful hand to the others. The success of work depends upon the attitude towards argument, disagreement or disliking regarding at one’s job premises or at home.When the rules of communication would be learnt that how should argue and fight fairly, the positive difference can be seen in the relationships and others recognize the same in a friendly manner. It is even more significant if there is an appropriate association between supervisor or manager and staff member to increase behavioral skills and develop teamwork. One way of imagining this is that as the staff member works for the boss, the boss also works for them.In realistic terms, that possibly mean creating and getting resources so the employee can be successful, driving out barriers, treating troubles directly handled by the boss but not influence-able by employee, etc. It is called bi-directional influence. Barriers In Behavioral Management There are some unintelligent things that Managers do and they often destroy individual-behavior-evaluation-system. Mostly they take help from Admin. or H. R. Department in preparing the appraisal of the employee, that situation destroys the worth of performance evaluation procedure. Some negative approach between management and employee as under: –Untrained Managers In The Course When a case for misbehavior or unethical attitude of employees is sent to the manager of concerned department, the concerned manager does not take such cases on a professional ground. Upon shouting of the evidences, the managers often take wrong decisions based on no deep research and just listening to other employees. â€Å"Although no â€Å"hard† data support allegations of malicious behavior by laid-off workers, we can speculate that having management personnel accompany laid-off workers to their workstations and then escort them off the premises may provide a certain degree of protection against reprisals.† (Lewis, 2004) This situation often creates an unhealthy behavioral environment and employees to not take assignments willingly. Managers require a thorough training about the a ppraisal and its importance within the organization. In absence of this awareness, one gets an empty paper pursue. â€Å"It seeks to guide managers as they try to behave ethically and socially responsibly, without jeopardizing their careers or companies. † (Schminke, 1998) Untrained Employees It is essential to train employees in their part of the assessment course because it only works when both employee and manager work jointly, in affiliation.Both employee and manager require grasping the same realizing bout the purpose of making appraisal, about its preparation and anticipations from them. â€Å"We have chosen to use face-to-face training because we can model behaviors and have our participants practice, review and practice again. † (Tyler, 2008) One cause managers delay in respect of preparation appraisals is that believe it as dissipate of time even don’t care to see the points, mentioned in the said forms. Unluckily, most organizations consider it’ s only an inquiry of dictating, screaming or supplicating managers to get them completed.If the managers sense the forms are beneficial, they must do them. There is only way to get them done is to make them beneficial. One-Sided approach Consider the problem for management if each and every manager employed a different form, or different procedure, how would it be kept on one track and organized the same. Problem is that the management anticipates managers to employ a single instrument for every one, frequently a rating form. This sort of rigidity deals with lodging problems. Unluckily, management gets trapped with the obligations of acquiring appraisals prepared by managers.Possibly it is not their liability but it is a firm sign that the prevailing system is unsuccessful. â€Å"Without a people-based information management system to acknowledge and support the interrelatedness of all areas of behavioral risk, the movement from internal to external models will continue. † (J ohnson, 2004) Every manager is evaluated on a number of things in an appropriately operating organism, one of that would be accomplishment of the functioning management and appraisal process. The obligation stands with the management.If the responsibility is not driven out by the manager, the concerned boss ought to be assessing the manager. Conclusion Whilst grading may appear to afford an accusative way of assessing, the grading themselves is only as better as the standards employed to enhance behaviors of employees. They could be misleading, seeming to appear that there is a purpose valid assessment process in progress, in real, it does not happen. The worth of an employee regarding equal standing with another in the group is immaterial to the progress of any organism.It doesn’t make any difference that whether a folk is the most excellent or the most horrible towards the job, the only matter is his/her complete involvement to the objectives of the organization. The gradin g system can ruin the morale and faith of an organization, with the reason it is too hard to grade objectively, and employees almost disagree with such kind of grading. The cause is that many of employees think that they are well above average in work efficiency. References Lewis, Gerald. (2004). A subtle form of workplace hostility. The Journal of Employee Assistance. April edition.Kalinoski, Glenn J. (2005). HR firm finds niche in leadership. Westchester County Business Journal. October edition. Johnson, Robert B. (2004). Behavioral risk: a systemic approach: The Journal of Employee Assistance. September edition. Priest, Jim T. (1999). Managing business ethics. The Journal Record. Oklahoma City. January 15th. Schminke, Marshall. (1998). Managerial Ethics: Moral Management of People and Processes. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Tyler, Kathryn. (2008). Generation gaps: millennials may be out of touch with the basics of workplace behavior. HR Magazine. January edition.

Psychodynamic and Behavioural Essay

Introduction In this essay I’m going to describe and evaluate the core theoretical perspectives in counselling, behavioural, cognitive behavioural, humanistic and psychodynamic theories, the view of the person in therapy, the blocks to functioning of the person in therapy and the goals and techniques of each theory. I will compare and contrast the approaches looking at the similarities and differences between the counselling perspectives and how the counsellor in each theory differ in their techniques to counselling their clients. This essay will present and contrast the workings of the four major theories of counselling psychology mainly – psychodynamic, cognitive behavioural and person-centred. First I will describe what counselling entails, introducing each in turn. My discussion will examine the four theories or approaches for a history of the founder and a rationale for why they were led to introducing a new therapy approach and a sketch of the key concepts. Further, I will look at methods and processes employed by each theory, the respective roles played by the therapist and the client and the various situations to which the theory can be applied. Finally I will examine the limitations of the theory and how well it integrates with other approaches. Throughout this paper I will offer my own view of the issues at hand and in so doing attempt a synthesis of the four theories The aim of writing this essay is to widen my knowledge and insight of the four theories, their backgrounds and development, their ideologies and how they influence human behaviour. This academic essay is going to form part of the requirements for the award of Diploma in counselling studies at the Kenya Association of Professional counsellors in Kisumu. Counselling The function of counselling is to help people to resolve problem areas in their life. Counselling provides an opportunity for the person to explore the difficult feelings, thoughts and behaviours that have blocked the way to satisfying relationships, personal happiness. The purpose of counselling is to help clients achieve their personal goals, and gain greater insight into their lives. One hopes that by the end of this process one will be more  satisfied with his or her life. Counselling is not a process where the counsellor tells the client what he or she should do or decides choices for the client to make. Rather it is an opportunity for the client to come to a greater understanding of the person that he or she is with the help of the counsellor. Counselling is to assist individuals through a helping relationship to make changes and adjustments in their lives to alleviate stress and reduce unrest. To create and discover choices those are available to counsellor in order to eliminate negative responses from challenging situations. The client relationship with their counsellor is confidential. No information concerning the client will be released without their consent. Counselling does not provide instant answers. The frequency of the person visits will be determined by the client and their counsellor. Living in the modern world, surrounded by confusion and at times apparent chaos, we are all often exposed to difficulties and challenging situation. We all encounter problems such as relationship difficulties, work demands, financial obligations, unemployment, divorce or other pressures we may face on a daily basis. Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic theories relate in some ways to the way we feel and behave as individuals and seek to provide a framework for us to understand these aspects of our personalities often our experiences in childhood and particularly our early relationships. Much of psychodynamic thinking from Freud’s theory of psychosexual development (Freud, 1905) to Winnicott’s work with children there is a recognition that we develop patterns in behaviour early in our lives that will shape the way we relate to the world as such these theories are known as developmental theories (Spurling, 2004, pg. 2). Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) The psychodynamic theory was first postulated by Sigmund Freud as psychoanalysis in essence learned in overcoming his emotional pain, the dynamics of personality development (Corey, 2000) He developed an interest in hypnosis which was an early precursor of psychotherapy. First Born of a Viennese family of three boys and girls, he graduated from medical school and became a psychotherapist Basic Assumptions and Key Concepts The counselling theories all encompass therapeutic techniques as well as a model of the human personality. Freud’s views of human nature was that the human beings was controlled by irrational forces and instinctual drives established in childhood whereby people are products of their environments and innate unconscious forces. These instincts serve as a meaning of survival for the individual where the goal of life is to enhance pleasure and avoid pain. The reviewed human personality as comprising of three elements The ID The primitive, it is instinctive, illogical, lacks organization, seeks pleasure. Hereditary factors are represented by the ID.the Id has no judgement value (good vs evil) and has no morality. The EGO Refined by the contact with the outside world the ego is realistic, organized and logical. Super Ego Representing the authority figures, the super ego is judgemental, ideal, strives for perfection and informs the person’s moral code. It represents reality of the external world. Freud believed that for psychological health all three had to be in balance (Hough, 2002) the ego’s role was to balance the conflicting demands between the id and the super ego that led to tension in order to protect the ego from negative energy defence mechanisms develop; these include denial, repression, regression and others. He saw human development through stages denominated by changing awareness and attitudes towards human sexuality organs. Accordingly, he devised the notion of libido which he refers to as the energy of all life instincts. This energy then is the motivation that drives us to the central goal of life which is to enhance pleasure and avoid pain. Later he came up with the death instincts that accounts for human aggression in his view, those unconscious drives determine how people act (Corey, 2000). Defence Mechanisms According to psychoanalysis, when an individual faces a conflict among the ID, ego and super ego over the control of psychic (mind) energy, he adopts several defence mechanisms to cope with the challenges. While all defence mechanisms can be unhealthy, they can also be adaptive and allow us to function normally. The greatest problems arise when the defence mechanisms  are over used in order to avoid dealing with problems. [Class notes, certificate in counselling studies, 2014] Anxiety There are three types of anxiety, one being reality anxiety which is in touch with reality threat, second is neurotic anxiety which is concern those instincts that will get out of hand and thirdly moral anxiety which is fear of own conscience . So when anxiety state is in excess, one goes into ego defence mechanisms to be able to cope. This happens mostly at the unconscious level and the aim is to either deny or distort (class notes, diploma in counselling studies, 2014, pg. 65) Reality examples of defence mechanisms include repression which acts to keep information out of conscious awareness. However these mechanisms don’t just disappear they continue to influence our behaviour. E.g. a person who has repressed memories of abuse as a child, may later have difficulty forming relationship Displacement Taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening egg if a boss has annoyed a person since he/she cannot argue with the boss he/she instead expresses anger towards a person or object that poses no threat such as spouse, pet or children or house maids. Sublimation Diverging sexual or aggressive energy to socially acceptable behaviour, for example a person experiencing extreme anger might take up kickboxing as a means of venting frustrations, Development Stages Freud linked different kinds of conflicts to specific stages of a child’s development, he classified these in terms of areas of the body, he believed to represent the source of child’s libido on sexual instinct at the time he termed them oral, from birth to 1 year, anal from 1 year to 3years, phallic from 3 to 6 years, latent from 6 to 12 years and genital from 12 to 18years. Freud believed that if a child does not negotiate any of this stages, they get fixated that is they psychologically remain in that stage and do not move effectively to the others. For example you may find a 12 year old still sucking the thumb, a characteristic of the oral stage. The adolescent is in  turmoil as she/he discovers the self. Goals The goal is psychodynamic theory is one to modify individuals character by making the unconscious conscious and two to strengthen the ego so that behaviour is based more on reality than on instinct. Techniques There are many techniques used to facilitate the clients to gain insight into their behaviour and meaning of symptoms and they include, free association whereby clients are made to relax so that they can reflect whatever comes to their mind uncensored even if it is disagreeable or if it seems meaningless and this is to bring forth material from unconscious mind (Jones, 2006) another one is dream analysis where during sleep the defences are lowered and repressed feelings surface. These may point to some unresolved issues, and in transference analysis, transference manifest itself at the point when a client’s unfinished business causes them to distort the present reality and to react to therapist as they did to the father, mother as significant others. Through Freudian slip or slips of the tongue, unconscious thoughts and feelings can be transferred to conscious minds. Freud believed that slips of tongue provide an insight into the unconscious mind and not accidental and every behaviour including slips of the tongue was significant thus determining behaviour (Corey, 2001) Limitations and Weaknesses Some of the ideas (penis envy, Oedipus) are outdated in terms of our contemporary world, and it is questioned by some theorists/practitioners whether these concepts are clinically useful It takes a long time commitment in terms of time and resources to complete the psychoanalytic therapy and process. His fellow proponent Carl Jung maintains that our behaviour is not merely shaped by our past events only but by the present as well as the future. Erik Eriksson Freud did not tolerate divergent views from himself and this led his contemporaries and students establishing their own theoretical approaches, these included Alfred Adler (1870-1937) who introduced what he calls (individual psychology) in 1911 another one was Erik Eriksson[ 1963] extended his theory of psychosocial perspective by stressing the  psychosocial aspects of development beyond childhood. His theory of human development holds that both psychosexual and psychosocial growth take place together and that each stage in life we face the task of establishing equilibrium between ourselves and our social lives. He describes development in terms of the entire lifespan divided by specific crisis to be resolved. He describe the crisis as turning point in life when we have the potential to move forward or regress. To large extend our life is as a result of the choices we make at each of these stages. Behavioural Theory Behaviour therapy, lie its name implies is the psychotherapy that focuses on the change or improvement of behaviour rather than the healing of the heart or the mind as Jan Ehrenwald called it ‘psychotherapy without psyche’ (Ehrenwald, 1976) although its main focus is on the behaviour only, however, in its clinical approach, behavioural therapy has been used to treat variety of disorders such as anxiety disorders, eating disorders and sexual disorders etc. besides the clinical approach behaviour therapy has been used in the area of business, schools and rehabilitation centres. Furthermore behaviour modifications, though slightly different approach but based upon similar techniques and assumptions are also used to correct undesirable behaviour and promote adaptive behaviours in our daily life. As an overall theory the distinctive emphasis is on overwhelming role of environmental contingencies in influencing the acquisition and maintenance of behaviour (Jones, 2006) Pavlov’s classical conditioning. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) research on the digestive system of dogs led to his discovery of the classical conditioning process which demonstrated that the learning process could be used to make an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus the underlying belief in classical conditioning is that behaviour can be controlled and that human beings can be made to do things without being aware of them just as Pavlov was able to condition a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell. This experiment shows that the environment can be manipulated to produce the desired behaviour or response, for example in counselling the client can be conditioned to produce the desired result for example to undo a negative practice such as fear. Pavlov’s researches into  conditioned reflex were essential to the founding of behaviour therapy (Jones, 2006). Skinners Operant Behaviourism B.F Skinner (1904-1990) was born in Susquehanna Pennsylvania. He came up with the concept of operant conditioning which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behaviour. According to him, reward and punishment make people behave in certain ways, positive reinforcement aims to increase the frequency of a response by filling it with a favourable event (rewards) while negative reinforcement makes use of punishment, withdrawal of the rewards. The term ‘operant’ emphasizes the fact that behaviour operates on the environment to generate consequences. Thus the consequences define the properties with respect to which responses are viewed as similar He acknowledged that Pavlov called all events that strengthened behaviour in his dog ‘reinforcement’ and the resulting changes their voluntary behaviour ‘conditioning’. However, the critical difference is that in Pavlov’s work, the reinforced is paired with stimulus, whereas in operant behaviour it is contingent upon a response. Classical and operant conditioning are the only two possible kinds of conditioning. (Jones, 2006) Albert Bandura‘s Social learning Bandura(1925) was born and raised in Mundare in Northern Alberta, Canada he graduated from the university of British Colombia with a psychology major and later received a doctorate in clinical psychology from university of IOWA and it was there that he came under the influence of behaviourist tradition and learning theory. He propagated social learning theory. It postulates that people are capable of learning vicariously by observing behaviourism of others as well as its consequences and imitating that behaviour. The key learning aspects include observation, retention, and motivational imitation. (Jones, 2006) Goals Main goal is to create new condition for learning. The behavioural approach helps produce effective ways of managing conditions of the client through behaviour modifications techniques and the principles of reward and punishments. It is assumed that such learning experiences can restructure behaviour. Assumptions The main assumption of behavioural approach is that behaviours learnt can be unlearnt for example the unacceptable behaviour such as smoking can be stopped. Techniques  Behavioural approaches use a variety of methods and techniques which include; relaxation training, systematic desensitization, token economies just to mention a few. These training methods are often utilized to help people learn new ways and overcome maladaptive behaviours. Relaxation training method aims at achieving muscles and mental relaxation, it is a useful experience in releasing physical and mental fatigue. While systematic desensitization is based on the principle of classical conditioning and is used to address anxiety based on maladaptive behaviour or avoidance reaction (Corey, 2001) Limitations and Weaknesses Behaviour Change is based on the idea of learning and that behaviour can be learnt and unlearnt and re-learnt contrary opinions show that some behaviours are hereditary (genetic) also behavioural approach deals with a client’s current problems and the factors that influence them rather than the reasons leading to the problem or historical determinants. The counsellor assumes that the client’s problems are influenced by present conditions for example at time it ignores the important relational and historical factors of present behaviour. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy In its simplest form, cognitive behavioural therapy (or CBT as it is referred) refers to the approach of changing dysfunctional behaviours and thoughts to realistic and healthy ones. CBT encompasses several types of therapy focusing on the impact of an individual’s thinking as it relates to expressed behaviours. Such models include rational emotive therapy(RET),rational emotive behavioural therapy(REBT), behavioural therapy (BT), Rational Behaviour Therapy (RBT), schema focused therapy and Cognitive therapy (CT).Most recently a few other variations have been linked to CBT such as an acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), dialectic behavioural therapy (DBT) and mindfulness based cognitive therapy ( MBCT) (Harrington and Pickles,2009). The main aspect that all these branches of therapy share is that our thought relate to our external behaviours. External events and individuals do not cause the negative thoughts or feelings. But instead the perception of events and situations is the root cause (National Association of Cognitive Behavioural therapists 2010) Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) Albert Ellis (1913) was born in Pittsburgh he combined humanistic, philosophical and behavioural therapy to form rational emotive therapy, (now known as rational emotive behaviour therapy or REBT) Ellis can be referred to as the grandfather of cognitive therapy. Ellis became dissatisfied with practicing psychoanalysis and psychotherapy and began to focus more on philosophical beliefs including those that clients could change self-defeating behaviours by changing their points of View (P.333, Sharf, 2012) Ellis was the first to connect the impact of thoughts as they relate to behaviour when he published in 1962, Reason and Emotion psychotherapy (Walsh, 2010) Ellis work asserted that an individual’s underlying thinking about him/herself directly affected his/her behaviours and as a therapist his goal was to help the clients become more reasonable in thoughts and ultimately followed behaviours. Assumptions The basic assumptions of REBT is that people contribute to their own psychological problem as well as to specific symptom by the way they interpret events and situations. The approach views human problem as stemming from disturbances in the thought or cognitive process which people are disturbed not by events themselves but by their view of events. Emotions are derived from our beliefs, evaluation, interpretation and reactions to life situations and that changing these will lead to a change in how we feel about things and consequently how we behave or the actions we take (Corey 2005) The approaches teaches individuals to become rational in thoughts in order to eliminate irresponsible behaviour Ellis created the A-B-C theory based model to create changes which simply states that emotional and behavioural consequences (C) are the results activating events. (A) And irrational beliefs (B) of those events. Later D and E are bought into play with (D) representing the detecting and disputing element and (E) becomes the new effect or behaviour. Other techniques used in REBT that are major component of CBT are visualizations, skill training, homework and role  playing many believe that Elli’s REBT and Beck’s cognitive are very similar, however, Ellis disputes this and argues that there are significant differences, as do some therapists who take the side of Beck and favour cognitive therapy (Padesky and Beck, 2003,2007) Cognitive Theory Aaron T. Beck (6 1921) was born in Providence, Rhode Island. His childhood was characterized by adversity. Aaron Becks is widely renowned for his contribution to CBT. In the 1960s Becks, who initially was interested in depression, found the depressed individuals carried many biases in their cognitive processing leading him to create Cognitive Theory (C.T) (Burns, 1999.) Beck noticed that individuals exhibit an â€Å"internal communication system within themselves, from which they formed their beliefs† or what Beck called schema (Shard, p371). An individual’s schema represents their distorted thinking patterns and determines how they view or perceive events. For those that are depressed, the schema often consists of negative thoughts along with self-criticism and self-blame. More specifically, this cognitive schema presented â€Å"three basic themes of personal ineffectiveness, personal degradation, and the world is essentially an unpleasant place (Walsh, 2010).† This type of thinking commonly resulted in individuals prophesying failure and disaster for themselves. He also noticed during therapy that his depressed clients consistently dismissed positive thoughts in order to focus on the negative thoughts. Many of such thoughts seemed to be automatic and spontaneous, leading him to coin the phrase ANTs better known as automatic negative thoughts. Such thoughts, ideas and beliefs resulted in clients believing that they were unlovable, worthless, and despicable. In 1976, Beck published Cognitive Therapies and the Emotional Disorders leading others to take notice of this concept. He also contributed to the field greatly with some of the most well-known and utilized assessments such as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and Beck scale for suicidal ideation (BSS), Beck anxiety scales (BAI), and the Beck youth inventories of social impairment (BYI). Goal Cognitive therapy teaches clients how to think about their thinking so that they can correct faulty cognitive processing and develop assumptions that  allow them to cope. It also aims to impact behavioural skills relevant to client’s problems for example listening and communication skills for distressed couples and assertion skills for shy people (Jones, 2006) Technique Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is directive and persuasive and even confrontive, though it can also be reflective and structured in its approach (Corsini and Wedding 1995) the therapists takes on the role of a teacher pointing out distorted thinking helping the clients identify and process emotions and practicing new skills by way of role play. In cognitive therapy, There is a heavy reliance on homework assignments and it is very much skill based method. Limitations CBT does not suit everyone and it is not helpful for all conditions. You need to be committed and persistent in tackling and improving your health problem with the help of the therapist. It can be hard work. The homework may be difficult and challenging. You may be taken ‘out of your comfort zone’ when tackling situations which cause anxiety or distress. However, many people have greatly benefited from a course of CBT. In order to benefit from cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) you need to ensure that you give a considerable level of commitment and involvement. Due to the structured nature of CBT, it may not be suitable for people who have more complex mental health needs, or learning difficulties. Cognitive Behaviour modification Donald Meichenbaum was another major alternative to rational emotive behaviour (CBM) which focuses on changing clients self-verbalization, according to Meichenbaum (1977), self-statements affect a person’s behaviours in much the same way as statements made by another person the therapeutic process consists of training clients to modify the instructions they give to themselves so that they can cope more effectively with the problems they encounter. Emphasis on acquiring practical coping skills for problematic situations such as impulsive and aggressive behaviour, fear of taking tests, fear of public speaking. On how behaviour changes, he describes three phases one being self-observant, here clients observe their  behaviours by listening to themselves then phase two is for starting a new internal dialogue, here clients learn to notice the maladaptive behaviours and begin to see opportunities for adaptive behavioural alternatives. Phase three for learning new skills. Then modif ication process consists of teaching client more effective skills. Assumptions Meichenbaum operates on the assumption that there are multiple realities and one of the therapeutic tasks is to help clients appreciate how they construct their realities and how they author their stories (Corey 2001). Humanistic Theory Humanistic theory focuses on the positive attributes to what they considered it is to be human. To better understand some of the attributes and notions of humanistic theory the following paper analysis’s two humanistic theories in turn; specifically Maslow’s conception of self-actualization and Rogers phenomenological based personality theory. This is followed by discussing some strengths and limitations to humanistic theories in understanding relationships, others and the self. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs According to Abraham Maslow our actions are motivated in order to achieve certain needs using a pyramid model to display the hierarchy of human needs he suggests that people are motivated to fulfil the basic needs before moving on to other more advanced needs. Needs at the bottom of the hierarchy are basic physical requirements including need of water, sleep, air and warmth. Once this lower level needs have been met. People can move to the next level of needs which are safety and security.as people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. So once the need for love, friendship and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid the need for personal esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization which is a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential. This Hierarchy of needs was presented in the formation of a triangle Person-Centred American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902-1987) is often considered to be  founder of this school of thought. Carl Rogers was born January 8, 1902 in Oak Park, Illinois. Carl was the fourth of six children. He maintained there were three conditions which constitute the climate to promote the personal growth Genuineness: this is the realness and congruence. According to Rogers the more a counsellor is real and true in the relationship and is not putting up personal faà §ade and professional face the more the client will change positively. Unconditional Positive Regard: This is the simple act of accepting all traits and behaviours in the client as long as it does not entail causing significant harm to others. Positive regard is not withdrawn if the client does wrong or makes a mistake Empathy: Rogers believed that the counsellor should experience an accurate understanding of the client’s awareness of his own experience and show this understanding to the client. Carl Rogers believed that the client by establishing a productive relationship with an understanding counsellor can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life. Assumption The main assumption is one that human beings are good and moving towards good provided the environment is supportive and two ,people have the capacity to solve their own problems through the self-actualizing tendency and thirdly human beings are unique, singular and individual. Techniques Humanistic counselling is aimed at helping the counselling client make different choices. This type of counselling gives the client as much freedom to be himself in the counselling setting as possible. The counsellor’s role is to accept the client as she is and direct her to view her choices objectively, but not to impose choices on her or direct her behaviour in any particular manner. Humanistic counselling includes active listening, gestalt techniques and no confrontational questioning. Active Listening Active listening helps the client identify his own thoughts and feelings by summarizing for him the content or subtext of what he says. For example, if the client says he feels uncreative lately, the counsellor might comment, â€Å"You’re really having a dry spell,† or â€Å"It must be frustrating not to have any ideas when you want to work.† This gives the client a sense of visibility–the counsellor sees, understands and accepts who he really is–as well as putting a specific name to what he is experiencing. In some  cases, this gives the client new abilities to identify his own feelings outside of the therapy room. When using active listening, counsellors should be careful to reword emotional content rather than repeating it verbatim, as the latter technique can come off as glib or â€Å"not really listening.† Gestalt Techniques Gestalt techniques are a subset of humanistic counselling aimed at helping the client integrate her thoughts, feelings and experiences so her behaviour is consistent with her values and emotions, according to Psychology Today Treatment Centre. Common gestalt techniques include free association and psychodrama. In free association, the client is asked to say the first word or phrase that pops into her head in response to a word, phrase or incomplete sentence. Psychodrama involves dialoguing with aspects of the self, such as the inner child. Clients may be asked to switch from one seat to another in order to speak from the point of view of each such aspect or to write out dialogues between these aspects. Open-Ended Questions Asking open-ended questions helps the client delve deeper into his own thoughts about an issue. These questions provide a starting point for deeper thought without expressing the counsellor’s point of view, which could unduly influence the client. The questions require the client to say something more than â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† and avoid language that might lead him to a particular answer. Strengths and Weaknesses of Humanistic Theories As with every theory designed for application in the understanding of mankind, Humanistic theories have both strengths and many weaknesses. Thus the following section will address the major strengths and weaknesses of Humanistic theory in turn. One of the major strengths attributed to Humanistic theory is the idea that the subject is fully accountable and in control of their actions. This is in stark contrast to the notions behind psychoanalysis. Leading from this assumption is the notion that humanistic theories promote the idea of being human, self-fulfilment and realistic and observable goals that can be obtained. A final strength to Humanistic theory is the idea that from a clinical perspective it offers an open space in which a patent can express any feeling of thought without being led down a  path to revisit traumatic events which they may not feel comfortable discussing. One of the major weaknesses with Humanistic theories is lack of empirical evidence to support its claims. Academics such as Maslow have been widely criticized in this respect in terms of an absence of scientific empirical evidence. A further and related criticism of Humanistic theories is their inability and unsuitability to be used within a metaphysical arena. While Freud and contemporary Freudians managed to move towards ethics and morality through the same criticism of lack of empirical evidence, Humanistic theories have yet to encroach on the metaphysical subject area. A final criticism of Humanistic theories is that many professionals view this discipline as motivated by the cold realities of psychoanalysis and is a discipline which is based on the resistance of the unconscious; furthermore the discipline has seemed to be in decline in recent history. Conclusion I have come to the conclusion that all the four techniques are complementary and one can draw from each, and that the four approaches of psychoanalysis, cognitive behavioural, behaviourism, and humanistic psychology, represent the fundamental ways of viewing human beings and their behavioural problems. It is therefore important to get an understanding of all the techniques so as to know how to help clients with varied problems solve them. I therefore prefer Eclecticism as it acknowledges the human being is a complex being and a single approach cannot be sufficient enough to cater for this complexity. I recommend that a therapist/counsellor gets proper knowledge and training of all the theories in order to be able to counsel a client effectively. Cognitive behavioural approaches deals mainly with what is conscience and evident to the client in my view more research needs to be done and the emphasis should be more on exploring past emotional painful feelings experienced during development period. Which I believe will help the client experience them afresh, address and work on them and in so doing resolve the issues by changing their defective thinking and behaviours. References 1. BAC, 2009. The BACP definition of counselling [online] Lutterworth,Leicestershire: BAC 2. British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 1986, â€Å"Counselling-Definition of terms in use with expansion and rationale (Information Sheet 1)†, Rugby: British Association for Counselling. 3. Burns, D. D. (1993). Ten Days to Self-Esteem. New York: Quill. 1999. Revised edition. 4. Corey, G, (2005) Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 7th Edition, Belmont: Brooks/Cole. 5. Corey. (2001). 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Hansen, J.C., Rossberg, R.H., Cramer, S.H (1994) Counselling Theory and Process, 5th Edition, Needham Heights: Allyn and Bacon. 14. Hough M, 2002; A Practical Approach to Counselling, 2nd Edition, Harlow: Pearson. 15. Rogers, C. R., & American Personnel and Guidance. (1980). Inner world of counselling with Carl Rogers. New York: Insight Media. 16. Rogers, C. R., & American Personnel and Guidance. (1980). Inner world of counselling with Carl Rogers. New York: Insight Media. 17. Spurling, L. (2004) An Introduction to Psychodynamic Counselling London: Palgrave.